HISTORY 150W:

Revolutionary and Tidewater Virginia

An Amateur Website by Will May
 

THE MARITIME MUSEUM
Our class, which meets on Saturdays from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., just recently visited the Maritime Museum. We managed to see the Monitor Turret, which is the latest exhibit, as well as such artifacts as an Indian dugout canoe, various navigational instruments, such as the chronometer and octant, which were used by European sailors, and other items pertaining to all things nautical. I was able to take several pictures, although the lighting was bad enough in some places that the pictorial record is by no means complete.

One of the main exhibits in the navigation room focused on the various types of ships--the Arabian dhow, English and Spanish galleons, and so forth. It seems that the English galleon was basically a Spanish galleon that had undergone extensive changes in terms of complexity and size. Spanish ships up until the time of the Battle of Trafalgar were cumbersome and unwieldy, sometimes having as many as three decks. They were so heavy that it was virtually impossibly to sail them into the wind. The English galleon, on the other hand, was smaller and faster, with a squared-off stern and flattened sails that made it faster and more agile. To top it all off, the English ships were outfitted with larger caliber guns. All of this made sea travel a much easier task than it had been before.

                A Spanish galleon circa 1600 (model)                                         Henry Hudson's Ship Half Moon (model)

About 100 years later, navigational technology underwent a great change as well. In the coordinate system of naval cartography, latitude is the position north/south of the equator and longitude is the distance east/west of the Greenwich Meridian. Sailors had been able to calculate latitude using the sextant, but there was no reliable way to calculate longitude. This inability led to many deaths on reefs and so forth due to errors in calculations. However, in the 1730's John Harrison invented a device called the chronometer which was designed to measure longitude. When tested, it proved to be accurate to within one-eighth of a mile--a technological miracle in that day and age.           

The chronometer is in the the background in an octagonal wooden case. Next to it
is a graphometer, which was used for surveying coastlines. In the foreground to the
left is a mapmaker's rule, which was used for drawing curves as well as parallel
lines.

A rather grainy picture of an octant (left) and a
barometer. The octant was a navigational tool
that was later replaced by the sextant (which
is sometimes used even today).

JAMESTOWN VILLAGE AND FORT
This trip was made of up two sections: a visit to the reconstructed fort and Indian village and then, after lunch, an exploration of the excavated fort on Jamestown Island. While walking around the Indian village (which is much too close to the reconstructed fort to be accurate), we discussed the Indians and how they lived--tribal society, subsistence, living habits, and so forth. The Algonquians that the Virginia company encountered were a somewhat nomadic--albeit within a limited area--agricultural society that were loosely organized into what might be termed a confederacy under Chief Powhatan. The buildings in the village were supposedly as accurate as possible, based upon the drawings of men who lived in the Virginia colony and had firsthand experiences with the local natives.

These are two pictures from the interior and exterior of one of the reconstructed Indian wigwams. We found the living space somewhat cramped but not too uncomfortable--certainly not any worse than the living space on board the Discovery or the Susan Constant.

Next, we visited the reproductions of the ships Discovery and Susan Constant, respectively the smallest and largest of the three ships that came to Jamestown in 1607. The third, Godspeed, is currently undergoing repairs farther upriver.
Our talks with the sailors aboard the Discovery led to an interesting revelation. We asked if any of the men got claustrophobic, since anyone on board who was not a sailor was treated as cargo and thus spent most of their time below decks. The man I presumed to be skipper of the vessel explained that claustrophobia as we know it did not exist in the 17th century--our concept of a fear of enclosed space is a relatively modern one and is probably born out of a psychologically aware social community.

The Discovery (left) and the Susan Constant. The Discovery was the source of much conjecture; since it was only 50 ft long and carried at least 14 men in its hold, not counting the crew that remained on deck, our group speculated about the forced social atmosphere in what was most likely not used to such conditions. The "gentles" and aristocrats who traveled the New World probably got more than they bargained for merely on the trip over.

Our final stop before visiting Jamestown was the Reconstructed Fort. While we were there, Professor Whittenburg explained that the walls of the actual Jamestown Fort in 1607 had been more hastily constructed and less durable than the walls of the reconstruction. We also discussed the wattle and daub method of constructing houses, in which pieces of wood were tied together (the etymological root of "wattle" means to weave wood into a sort of mat-like construction) and caulked together with a substance made of mud, sand, ash, and ground oyster shells, among other things.

The fort was constructed in a triangle shape with a round bastion at each apex. These bastions were designed to provide enfilade fire in case of an attack; they also served to increase protection, since a round wall is much harder to assault and breach than an angular one.

Left: This is the bastion on the right of the observer as he enters the fort from the front. Note the carefully constructed wooden palisade.
Right: One of the houses at the reconstructed fort. Note the diagonal sills and the use of daubing in the exterior walls.

A hand-painted sign from the interior of the church.
(This is the only picture of the reconstructed Jamestown Church that I was able to use)
"Then Peter said to them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ, for the
remission of sinnes, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.   Acts 2:38

The real Jamestown Fort was located on a seemingly pestilential piece of ground on an island in the James River. We could only imagine what the place was like in the summer--mosquitoes, brackish water, and low, swampy ground would have made the whole area a horrid living area. We toured the area where archeologists just recently discovered evidence of the palisade and, from this evidence, determined that one of the original bastions is completely underwater in the river. The discovery of the palisade--indeed, of any wooden construction using posts and post-hole digging--was due to the detection of patches of earth that were darker than the surrounding soil. What happened was that the posts, after the wall was left to decay, rotted away, leaving the pattern of the wall imprinted in the ground. This pinpointing of the path of the palisade allowed the archeologists to establish the location of the bastions by simple geometry, using their knowledge of the three angles of the walls of the fort.
We were also able to view the ongoing excavation at the other end of the island, where the team has discovered several graves around the path of the palisade.

Two pictures of both sides of one of the recently excavated bastions (far right, covered by the green tarp). The wooden wall is an accurate reconstruction of the original palisade based on concrete molds of the post holes. You can see the vast difference between the sturdy and painstakingly built wall at the Reconstructed Fort and the rather ramshackle appearance of the original palisade.

This picture shows the path of the palisade into the river. It would appear that the third bastion,
now covered by the waters of the James, is somewhere past the edge of the wooden pilings in the background.

A member of the research team explains how they discovered the palisade after a great deal of
trial and error. Note the rectangular demarcated areas that indicate a gravesite.

At the other end of the island, we visited the outline of a foundation laid first by the Army Corps of Engineers in brick and by various archeological workers in concrete. These outlines mark what may well have been the original State House. If it was indeed the Jamestown State House, it would have been part of a sort of row house construction, with residences and probably a tavern included within the structure.

A picture of the outline of what may have been the first Virginia State House. If this were indeed the
State House, it would most likely have been rented to the Assembly when they met. Such arrangements were
not uncommon--it is the equivalent of a business today renting out a conference center for a week.

Our second-to-last stop was the church. Altogether, there were seven Jamestown churches, three of which were built on the site we visited. The last one to be built fell into disrepair and collapsed in the mid-1700's; however, this church is an accurate reconstruction of the original church which was built in the 1670's. The only piece of original architecture left is the church tower.
We also visited the grave of James Blair, who founded William and Mary and was at one time Virginia's highest-ranking clergymen. He is buried there with his wife, Sarah Harrison Blair, who was a member of the Harrison family of Jamestown Island.

The final stop was at a place that wasn't on the original itinerary: the glass-blowers'. The chemistry of the process appealed to me, and I learned about the various elements and the colors they produce in glass blowing.

    Iron: There is enough iron present in the sand used in glass blowing to produce a dark green color similar to jade.
    Manganese: If used in small enough quantities, it reacts with iron to produce a yellow or clear glass. However, if the
    quantity is increased, manganese will produce pink and eventually a deep purple glass called "amethyst" (the kind I
    bought).
    Cobalt: Produces the beautiful dark blue commonly associated with its name.
    Gold: Apparently produces a red-colored glass. I have no description of it because there was none at the museum store.
   
    Silver will also produce yellow; copper, of course, will create a greenish color (although lighter than iron). Sometimes, if
    the sulfur content in the base materials (sand, ash, etc.) is high enough, an attractive amber-brown glass can be formed.

Although this had no bearing on the history of Jamestown--since glass-blowing was a dangerous and risky venture, it added very little to the economy of the young colony--I found the story behind the color theory appealing to my chemist's nature. I doubt many people have ever questioned the staff at the glassblowers' so thoroughly on the subject...

HISTORIC ST. MARY'S, MARYLAND
St. Mary's was and will be the only site we visit that is outside Virginia. Our trip there was gave us some insight into the difference between Virginia and Maryland in the early days of colonial America. It was founded in 1634 along the St. Mary's River by a slightly larger group of settlers than those who built Jamestown. The expedition was led by Leonard Calvert, whose  brother Cecilius, Second Lord Baltimore, was the proprietor of the colony. Through an agreement with the local Yaocomaco Indians, the settlers came into possession of an abandoned village. They lived in the pre-existing Indian structures until they were able to construct a proper settlement. Their peaceful co-existence with the Yaocomaco remained stable for about a year, during which time the Yaocomaco gradually left the area for greener pastures. (It seems rather fortuitous that the English came to Maryland at the same time that the Indians were leaving; in doing so, they may have unwittingly avoided the problems with the natives that beset Jamestown).

Leonard Calvert

Although Maryland was originally a haven for Roman Catholics who were suffering religious persecution in England since Oliver Cromwell's rise to power, it soon became known as a colony with a liberal religious atmosphere. Other groups seeking such freedom, such as Quakers and Presbyterians, settled in Maryland. From 1634 to 1645, the colony grew to somewhere between five and six hundred people. A citizen government was established, and the Maryland assembly declared their right to make their own laws.

The promise of land was another factor that drew colonists to Maryland over the 17th century. Each settler got 100 acres for himself and another 100 for each servant he brought with him. Women were also able to own land, and could receive the same land grant as a man. The primary cash crop of these farms and manors were, as in Virginia, tobacco. When we visited the Cole plantation after visiting St. Mary's, we talked to the "settlers" (actors who were trained to speak, act, and behave like 17th century English colonists) and noted that there was an obsessive fixation on profit. Later, at Bacon's Castle, we discussed that fact that, although the Virginia colonists were certainly interested in making money, they lacked the single-mindedness of the Maryland farmers. They seemed rather more interested in proving their wealth than focusing themselves completely on the long-term profit.

In 1645, Richard Ingle, a Protestant, led a rebellion against the Catholic government of the Maryland colony (largely dominated by the Calvert family). He drove Leonard Calvert from his home and turned in it into "Pope's Fort" (an ironic name for a Protestant stronghold!). The Calverts retook the colony in 1646, but were again driven out between 1654 and 1657. When the Calverts finally returned to power in 1658, they installed a Protestant governor, Josiah Fendall, in order to keep the peace among the Protestant colonists. However, Fendall proved less than trustworthy and soon led a revolt (albeit an unsuccessful one) against the Calverts. With the coronation of King Charles II and the return of Catholicism to England, the power and stability of the Calvert family's authority was stabilized, and over the mid-to-late 17th century (1660-1690) St. Mary's grew into the true capital of the Maryland colony.

The exterior and interior of the reconstructed Maryland State House. This is where the Assembly met; like the Virginia
State House, it also served as a gathering place for the entire community for various local events.

Andrew in the pillory outside the State House.

Our class listens to a guide talk about the history of Smith's Ordinary. Note the low-ceilinged room in the background; it was
actually a giant hearth surrounding the fireplace where the Ordinary's customers could sit.

After the King's return to the throne, Philip Calvert, brother of Leonard Calvert, was made proprietary governor of Maryland. A year later Charles Calvert, Cecilius Calvert's son, was made governor, and Philip was made deputy-lieutenant under him. He became a successful diplomat and negotiated various treaties with the Dutch, the Indians, and the Virginia authorities.

A bust of Philip Calvert

Besides the reconstructed village and state house, our only other stop was at the Cole Plantation. There, as mentioned above, we talked to actors who had completely taken on the role of settlers. As well as telling us amusing anecdotes about tobacco's uses in curing various internal upsets, they gave us an insight into the psyche of the Maryland farmer--namely, profit. Every thing--the tobacco, the family's tenant farmers, even the man's daughter--had its place within the grand scheme of a money-making venture. This tied in to our discussion over lunch: was this widespread avarice such a bad thing? It's kind of hard to pin a value on such a thing; however, it is interesting to consider that this intense focus on capital, the so-called "American Way," seems to have been a part of the country as far back as the 17th century--indeed, before there was any "America" as we know it today, with a culture separate from the English.

We also discussed the fact that at one time, the American system of farming and slavery were not necessarily bound together by fate. At the Cole plantation, we talked with a "tenant farmer" whose mother was from Barbados and whose father was African. Although he was born in Virginia, he moved to Maryland (for the money--what else?) and became basically an indentured servant under the "farmer" whose land we visited. Although he was mostly at the mercy of his master's whims, his position was not necessarily hopeless. He was making enough pounds of tobacco (in early colonial days, one's wealth was measured in tobacco and not gold or silver) to pay for a land survey--a necessary step in procuring one's property. (The catch to the "free land" in Maryland was that one had to pay to have their plot surveyed, or they had no legal claim to the area.) If he had a fair master and saved his profits, he would be able within a period of several years to stake out his own property and be his own master. Later on, we saw a plaque to the memory of another black man who had come over on the Ark (along with the Dove, the first boat to come to Maryland) as an indentured servant. Later, after his term was over, he helped chart sections of the Chesapeake Bay area and led trade expeditions to Indian villages. He also became the first black member of the Maryland Assembly--proof that blackness in that day and age was not necessarily linked with servitude and inferiority. Professor Whittenburg explained that it was harder to make "non-persons" out of men who spoke and acted like Europeans, as most people who had a parent from an area such as the Barbados would. However, men who came from the so-called "Heart of Darkness" would tend to be so completely alien to the European way of life that it would be a relatively simple matter to consign them to a life of drudgery, toil, and degradation.

Here are some pictures from the Cole Plantation:

Left: The "tenant farmer" shows the class how to grind corn for the chickens. Right: Mandy, Tori, Annie, and Tyler join in the "fun." (Ha)

Some pictures from the interior of the master's house.

(Above) The class listens intently to the master's wife (below) as she tells them about life on the farm.

Tori with feline companion.

BACON'S CASTLE AND ST. LUKE'S CHURCH
One of the more prominent men in Virginia during Governor Berkeley's time was Arthur Allen. A member of the governor's inner circle, Allen was obsessed with show and ostentation, which is evident in the style of his house. Although relatively modest by today's standards, for the time in which it was built the house spoke volumes about Allen's wealth and social status. His son, Arthur Allen II (also known as Major Allen) was, if possible, more flamboyant than his father. As a member of what has been called the "Creole generation" of the Colonial period--i.e., someone who was born in America--he wanted to be "out-English" the English. He proved his need to do this by importing English topsoil for use in his garden--an expensive and largely useless gesture, since the soil of Virginia was ideally suited to growing just about anything. However, it did serve to 1) show off his power and monetary status and 2) to prove beyond a shadow of a doubt his pride in his English ancestry while at the same time displaying his underlying attachment to the colony of Virginia.

Bacon's Castle

The ownership of the house after the death of Arthur Allen III's (Major Allen's son) death passed to his wife, Elizabeth Allen. Interestingly enough, when the property passed to her she also became the possessor of the same rights as her late husband and probably wielded as much social influence as any landowning man of the period. However, this equal suffrage was not reflected in the literature of the period; very little is known about her personality, character, and so forth. This same inequality was also demonstrated at St. Luke's Church, where one woman's grave marker bore none of the flowery and pedantic prose that was written on her husband's stone.
When Elizabeth Allen died, the house went to her grandson. After this, my notes become somewhat sparse. Apparently the house went from her grandson. One of his descendants was Richard Cocke, who made extensive improvements to the house. The last descendant of Allen to live in the house was a man named Robertson, after whose death ownership of the house passed to the Hankins family. They owned it up through the time of the Civil War, after which the mortgaged the house (due to economic postbellum hardships) to William Allen Warren. It was turned into a country home but was bought by the APVA under sad circumstances after its owners died in a car accident in the 1920's.

A view of the interesting three-chimney layout on one side of Bacon's Castle.

Two views of the architectural "ghosts" that are the result of Elizabeth Allen's extensive
remodeling of Bacon's Castle. These "ghosts" can be found on  older buildings, such as the Wren Building,
and newer buildings, such as Taliaferro Hall (my dorm).

A view out the front window of Bacon's Castle (blocked thanks to Isabel). Originally, the main
door to the house stood here; however, when Hankins remodeled the house he moved the door to the front
of the Georgian addition that he had constructed.

After lunch at the Surry House we visited St. Luke's Church (http://www.historicstlukes.org/). (We would later note the differences between the interior of this building and that of Christ Church in Northern Neck.) As mentioned above, it was here that we noted the vast difference between the verbose and flowery eulogies of the men and the sparse epitaphs of the women; the gravestone we inspected was vague as to even such a fact as the lady's age at the time of her death.

One of the interesting things to me, as the musician at my church, was the ancient organ (visible in the background at the left of the picture below, under the stained glass window at the far end of the sanctuary). I was unable to take a picture of it as the light was too bad and we were prohibited from taking flash pictures due to its fragility; apparently, it was played for some time until its decay prevented its further use.

Note the fairly standard layout of the church. At Christ Church we would note that the pulpit (just barely visible in the right foreground) was placed, as in Bruton Parish, in the middle a cruciform building. This served to emphasize everyone's equality in the eyes of God and brought an end to the tradition of "family pews" and of standing room only in the balcony for the commoners.

The interior of St. Luke's Church.

Views of the (right) buttresses at the side of the church and (left) back of the church.

A slightly skewed picture of the tower of St. Luke's Church. Note the different construction of the
third story; it was built at a later date than the first two.

The Wren Building and the John Page House

Although William and Mary is known for being the oldest college in Virginia, there was actually an attempt made to start one before this college existed. Known as Henrico College, it was the result of a combined effort of the landed Virginia gentry (the "Creoles" mentioned previously) and the Church of England to start a university in the colony. However, this college never really succeeded, and no further attempts were made until 1695, when Rev. James Blair, the representative of the Church of England in Virginia, and his superior, the Bishop of London, were granted a charter by King William and Queen Mary. The college was built between 1695 and 1699, and its students were encouraged to lobby the Governor Nicholson to move the capital of Virginia from Jamestown to Middle Plantation. This was in 1699, and Middle Plantation was renamed Williamsburg.

The Wren Building, which was the focus of our tour of the "old campus" of William and Mary, has been the victim of three fires: one in 1705, one in 1859, and one in 1862. Although there are two stories now, we were told by our guide that there were originally three stories; after the first fire, apparently only two stories were rebuilt. (The third fire was the result of the Union invasion of the Tidewater area; after the siege of Williamsburg, the advancing Federal troops set fire to many buildings in the town as well as the campus of William and Mary.) The campus expanded all through the 1720's. In 1723, the Brafferton was founded by the estate of Robert Boyle. Intended  to be a missionary school to Anglicize local Indians, it was not very successful. By the 1770's, it had been terminated. Today, it holds the offices of the provost and president of the College.

The President's House was built in 1732, and is the oldest surviving President's House on any college campus in the United States. During the Yorktown campaign, it was used a French hospital and was burned by the British. Later, the French government made restitution and funded its reconstruction.

The Wren Building (http://www.mcmse.com/project.phtml?projectid=156)

Some pictures from inside the Great Hall of the Wren Building

The Wren Chapel

The original schools within the College (what we today would consider departments) were the Grammar, Philosophy, Divinity, and Indian Schools. There were no formal degrees until 1770. The students ranged in age from around 12 to around 21 or 22--basically to what is now considered the normal age for graduation. Within each school there were various levels of teaching, much one many one-room schoolhouses in which different age groups were placed together under the tutelage of one instructor. One interesting thing we learned was that surveying, which was taught at the college, was actually taught by surveyors and funded by the college, much like independent and alternative study programs today.

One of the interesting things we learned about the Wren Building was that although its design was attributed to Sir Christopher Wren, the famous British architect, there is really no evidence to support this. This somewhat unfounded honor was given to him by a former student, Hugh Jones; however, biographers who have researched Wren's work do not believe that he really designed it.

The only other location on our itinerary this trip was the site of the house of John Page, one of the more prominent "movers and shakers" of the mid-1600's. Born in 1627 into a wealthy family of landed gentry, he came to Virginia when he was 23 and served as various times as high sheriff of York County and a member of the Bruton Parish Vestry. Along with Philip Ludwell and Thomas Ballard, he was named in the empowerment of the creation of Williamsburg as the capital of Virginia.

Two views of the foundation of the John Page House

No one is really sure of the exact appearance of the house as it existed in the 17th century. Based on excavations, we know that it was a cruciform design roughly 37 feet on its longest side. However, the only conjuctural drawing of the house that was available at the site is now assumed incorrect by scholars; therefore, I have no pictures to show other than the brick outlines of the foundation. While we were at the site, Professor Whittenburg explained that in the 1930's, Colonial Williamsburg cut a trench through the site completely by accident but apparently were uninterested in it and left it. However, some records of it were made and put into the archives, because they were pulled out in the 1990's when history repeated itself and CW dug yet another trench through the site.

NORTHERN NECK AND CHRIST CHURCH
Our topic of this week's discussion was the Great Awakening and its effect on religion in Virginia during the 18th Century. It originally began in European countries (primarily Germany), and due to its evangelical nature had soon spread over the Atlantic Ocean. It put more emphasis on the emotional and personal aspects of religion than the Anglican majority in the Virginia colony, and was thus subject to disapproval and even physical intimidation from landed gentry such as William Byrd III.
Although it would spread to Virginia, the movement in America began in the "Middle Colonies" of New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey , with Johnathan Edward's sermon "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God." It was precipitated mainly by Presbyterian Scots-Irish immigrants who brought preachers in at a tremendous rate; churches in those colonies were calling back to Scotland's seminaries for ministers well into the 1700's. By the middle of the century, the movement was extensive, with Baptist missionaries widespread throughout the Southern colonies.

With that in mind, we set off to visit Historic Christ Church, which is located in an area of Virginia known as Northern Neck. This region is located between the Rappahannock and Potomac Rivers and stretches all the way from the Chesapeake Bay to the Shenandoah Valley. "A place where heaven and earth never agreed better," John Smith said of it. An highly desirable area in which to own land, it was the home of people such as Lord Fairfax, George Washington, and the Carter and Lee families.

One of the men who was closely connected to Christ Church during its period of prosperity was Robert "King" Carter. His father, John Carter, one of the wealthiest men in Virginia during the 17th Century, died when he was very young. This left him in the care of his elder brother, who sent him to school in England. He returned to Virginia in 1678 and inherited the family plantation when his brother died. One of the many wealthy men living in Northern Neck at the time, he held many important posts, including Naval Officer of the Rappahannock River, the commander of the Lancaster militia, and a member of the Council of Virginia (of which he was later elected chief after Gov. Drysdale's death). In his will, he gave funds for the construction of Christ Church, which was completed three years after his death in 1732.

Robert Carter, benefactor of Historic Christ Church

The church embodied the best of English Georgian architecture, employing intricate brickwork around the doors and windows, roof flourishes, and the use of space and light in the interior. It evokes the work of Sir Christopher Wren, apparently more so than the building here at William and Mary which bears his name (see the "Williamsburg" article above).

Pictures of the exterior and interior of Christ Church. Note on the outside shots the brickwork around
the compass windows and the relatively ornate designs around the doors.

In the Evangelical denominations, the spoken word was paramount. This was evident in the placement of the pulpit; located in the center of the church's cruciform design, it is easily viewable from every seat in the building. The acoustics make even a normal speaking tone audible throughout the church.

The pulpit of Christ Church

From 1720-1750, Christ Church was a thriving parish, more community-centered than any other local organization. Through the latter half of the century, it began to decline and the church fell into disrepair; however, the Virginia General Assembly passed a resolution making it impossible for the Commonwealth to own any privately donated churches. In 1958, the Foundation for Historic Christ Church was formed for the restoration and preservation of the building.

"THE REVOLUTION FROM THE BOTTOM UP": YORKTOWN VICTORY CENTER

"These are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of man and woman."
    - Thomas Paine

On this trip, we discussed the causes and effects of the rebellious nature which became a part of the American colonies after 1770. There were the usual discussions of the Stamp Act, the Intolerable Acts, the Boston Tea Party and the subsequent closing of Boston Harbor, but we also discussed the fact that until 1775, there was very little participation in revolutionary actions on the part of Virginia (and indeed most of the South). After all, most Virginia gentry wanted to imitate and out-do the English in terms of their anglophilia (see "Bacon's Castle" above), and felt their ties to their mother country very strongly. Why, then, are they included among the thirteen colonies that rebelled against English rule?

It seems that in 1775 a bill was working its way through Parliament that could very well lead to the abolition of slavery. This was enough to make the Virginia gentry very anxious about their fiscal welfare; after all, their livelihood was dependent on slave labor. This, coupled with a declaration by Governor Dunmore that any slaves who ran away from their masters to join the Royalist forces would be freed, was enough to push the gentry over to the side of the Revolutionaries. It is ironic, in retrospect, to consider that the acts of an English legislative body and a Crown-appointed Royalist governor were the contributing factors in bringing one of the largest American colonies into the war.

While at the Victory Center, we took note of the various battles that were listed in chronological order along the wall going through the exhibits. "The Revolution created confusion, blurred loyalties and redefined patriotism and treason," read one of the display boards at the beginning. It also seemed to be a war of American attrition through the years 1775-8 or so, with the few victories being in delaying actions. The colonists lost New York City and were forced to retreat over and over again, up until the famous winter at Valley forge (1777-8). In February of 1778, France declared war on Britain and allied with the U.S. (keep in mind that this was back when France's word meant something). There were few battles over the years 1779 and 1780, but in 1781 there were a string of American victories, including King's Mountain and Cowpens. 1781 was also the year in which Lord Cornwallis would be defeated at Yorktown.

In the later stages of the war, the British decided to mount a campaign in the southern colonies. Led by Lord Cornwallis and under the overall command of General Clinton, the British defeated the Americans at Charleston and pressed on through North Carolina and into Virginia. Ordered by Clinton to find a suitable port, Cornwallis chose to occupy Yorktown, and did so on August 2, 1781. However, the English fleet which was coming towards Yorktown was engaged by the French fleet under Admiral de Grasse. Although the battle was technically a draw, the English ended up retreating towards New York for repairs and re-outfitting, leaving Cornwallis stuck in Yorktown with no reinforcements and nowhere to go. By this time, Washington, along with the French general Rochambeau, had left New York State for Virginia.

In late September the two allied armies arrived in Williamsburg. As they moved towards Yorktown, Cornwallis decided not to abandon the outer earthworks surrounding Yorktown, so as not to spread his manpower too thinly. Throughout early October, the Allies began digging siege lines and bombarding the British earthworks. Then, on the night of October 14th, American and French troops took British redoubts 9 and 10, giving them enough of a foothold to build a second siege line. Cornwallis saw that this put Allied cannon at basically point blank range from his lines and ordered an attempt across the York River on the night of October 16th. When this failed, Cornwallis realized that his only viable choice was to surrender, which he did on October 19th, 1781.

Although this was indeed a major victory for the Americans, it would not be until March of 1782 that the British would lose confidence in the war, force Prime Minister North to resign, and agree to negotiate a peace with the Americans. Even after the peace was fully declared, it would not be until half a year after that, in September of 1782, that the last British troops would leave American shores.

Tents from the American camp exhibit outside the Victory Center

Tyler and Steph wearing the signs that were part of the punishment for
various crimes within the military

Some views across the Yorktown Battlefield

Note: The earthworks in the foreground are British. The American/French lines are visible in the background, just in front of the treeline.

Yorktown, Virginia: "Eliza Ambler's World"

The first site we visited in historic Yorktown was the Nelson House. Its construction was an attempt by Thomas Nelson (also known by the somewhat derisive nickname "Scotch Tom") to try to gain entrance into gentry life. Known as "conspicuous consumption," this type of activity was generally unsuccessful and probably earned more contempt from those of "old money" families. Among the many things that typify this house as an expensive undertaking are the rubbed and gauged bricks ("rubbed" means that the bricks have been rubbed together to achieve straighter edges) around the doors and windows, the ornate stonework on the corners and in the keystones, and the brick beltcourse between the first and second stories (which served no purpose other than to waste a rich man's money).

The Nelson House

The "Central Passage" of the Nelson House

From a handout taken from the Nelson House exhibit: "The Nelson House was the home of Thomas Nelson, Jr.  (1738-89),  Yorktown's most famous son and one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence...Nelson's grandfather ["Scotch Tom"] established the Nelson family in Yorktown, arriving from England in 1705. He soon became a prosperous and influential merchant. He constructed his home, the Nelson House, around 1730. His son, William, inherited the family business and went on to accumulate extensive landholdings throughout the colony...Thomas Nelson, Jr. inherited the family business on the death of his father. By the time of the revolution, he was one of the most powerful men in Virginia."

One of the things we discussed from our reading was the "Yorktown Girls." The experiences of three young women--Eliza Ambler, Mildred Smith, and Rachel Warrington--are related in Ambler's manuscripts and letters from the 1780's. They cover a range of topics, from "advice" literature of the time to reflections on the French soldiers living in Yorktown at the time. However, most of the papers relate, in one or another, to women's issues of the day. One of the more notable changes during this time period was the shift in focus of young ladies' "advice" literature; instead of male authors extolling mild submission to male authority, the literature was now written by female authors and promoted self-reliance and independence.

Eliza and Mildred were the daughters of wealthy townsmen Jacquelin Ambler and Lawrence Smith, Jr. Before the Revolution, Ambler was the collector of the King's Customs (hence the incorrect though understandable naming of his storehouse as the "Customs House"); Smith served as paymaster for local troops and owned substantial property in and around Yorktown. In this type of society, young women and men were separated around puberty, and were not brought back together in societal functions until their late teens. This led to many awkward and embarrassing situations in which the young men proved their ineptitude in relating to and behaving around the Yorktown Belles.

Overall, the Yorktown Girls provided an interesting firsthand view into the life of well-to-do non-gentry families of their time. In the writings we get a sense of the widening emancipation of women from their deference to male authority and perhaps what are the first strains of feminism within America. (This does not necessarily mean feminism in the sense that we as 21st Century dwellers have come to know it!)

The Old Customs House. It was given this incorrect name due to Ambler's position
as a naval or customs officer

The last site we visited was the "Poor Potter" of Yorktown. One of the many problems that American entrepreneurs had with English rule was the excessive rules and laws restricting industry and industrial development within the colonies. Although they relied heavily on British goods for their day-to-day lives, the colonists flouted these rules to some extent. Although it was termed the "Poor Potter" by a writer of the time, it is likely that this terminology was largely due to an intent to disguise its success. The British, perhaps underestimating it, allowed the Potter to remain in operation. Its owner, William Rogers, was actually neither poor nor a potter; he was a former brewery owner who hired a crew of German immigrants from Pennsylvania to work for him. The material it produced--Rogersware--was of equivalent quality of any British pottery of the time and was wildly successful throughout the colonies.